The first EMEP intensive measurement periods were held in June 2006 and January 2007. The measurements aimed to characterize the aerosol chemical compositions, including the gas/aerosol partitioning of inorganic compounds. The measurement program during these periods included daily or hourly measurements of the secondary inorganic components, with additional measurements of elemental- and organic carbon (EC and OC) and mineral dust in PM1, PM2.5 and PM10. These measurements have provided extended knowledge regarding the composition of particulate matter and the temporal and spatial variability of PM, as well as an extended database for the assessment of chemical transport models. This paper summarise the first experiences of making use of measurements from the first EMEP intensive measurement periods along with EMEP model results from the updated model version to characterise aerosol composition. We investigated how the PM chemical composition varies between the summer and the winter month and geographically. The observation and model data are in general agreement regarding the main features of PM10 and PM2.5 composition and the relative contribution of different components, though the EMEP model tends to give slightly lower estimates of PM10 and PM2.5 compared to measurements. The intensive measurement data has identified areas where improvements are needed. Hourly concurrent measurements of gaseous and particulate components for the first time facilitated testing of modelled diurnal variability of the gas/aerosol partitioning of nitrogen species. In general, the modelled diurnal cycles of nitrate and ammonium aerosols are in fair agreement with the measurements, but the diurnal variability of ammonia is not well captured. The largest differences between model and observations of aerosol mass are seen in Italy during winter, which to a large extent may be explained by an underestimation of residential wood burning sources. It should be noted that both primary and secondary OC has been included in the calculations for the first time, showing promising results. Mineral dust is important, especially in southern Europe, and the model seems to capture the dust episodes well. The lack of measurements of mineral dust hampers the possibility for model evaluation for this highly uncertain PM component. There are also lessons learnt regarding improved measurements for future intensive periods. There is a need for increased comparability between the measurements at different sites. For the nitrogen compounds it is clear that more measurements using artefact free methods based on continuous measurement methods and/or denuders are needed. For EC/OC, a reference methodology (both in field and laboratory) was lacking during these periods giving problems with comparability, though measurement protocols have recently been established and these should be followed by the Parties to the EMEP Protocol. For measurements with no defined protocols, it might be a good solution to use centralised laboratories to ensure comparability across the network. To cope with the introduction of these new measurements, new reporting guidelines have been developed to ensure that all proper information about the methodologies and data quality is given.

This study intends to contribute to the ongoing discussion on whether land use and land cover changes (LULC) or climate trends have the major influence on the observed increase of flood magnitudes in the Sahel. A simulation-based approach is used for attributing the observed trends to the postulated drivers. For this purpose, the ecohydrological model SWIM (Soil and Water Integrated Model) with a new, dynamic LULC module was set up for the Sahelian part of the Niger River until Niamey, including the main tributaries Sirba and Goroul. The model was driven with observed, reanalyzed climate and LULC data for the years 1950-2009. In order to quantify the shares of influence, one simulation was carried out with constant land cover as of 1950, and one including LULC. As quantitative measure, the gradients of the simulated trends were compared to the observed trend. The modeling studies showed that for the Sirba River only the simulation which included LULC was able to reproduce the observed trend. The simulation without LULC showed a positive trend for flood magnitudes, but underestimated the trend significantly. For the Goroul River and the local flood of the Niger River at Niamey, the simulations were only partly able to reproduce the observed trend. In conclusion, the new LULC module enabled some first quantitative insights into the relative influence of LULC and climatic changes. For the Sirba catchment, the results imply that LULC and climatic changes contribute in roughly equal shares to the observed increase in flooding. For the other parts of the subcatchment, the results are less clear but show, that climatic changes and LULC are drivers for the flood increase; however their shares cannot be quantified. Based on these modeling results, we argue for a two-pillar adaptation strategy to reduce current and future flood risk: Flood mitigation for reducing LULC-induced flood increase, and flood adaptation for a general reduction of flood vulnerability.

This study assesses future flood risk in the Niger River Basin (NRB), for the first time considering the simultaneous effects of both projected climate change and land use changes. For this purpose, an ecohydrological process-based model (SWIM) was set up and validated for past climate and land use dynamics of the entire NRB. Model runs for future flood risks were conducted with an ensemble of 18 climate models, 13 of them dynamically downscaled from the CORDEX Africa project and five statistically downscaled Earth System Models. Two climate and two land use change scenarios were used to cover a broad range of potential developments in the region. Two flood indicators (annual 90th percentile and the 20-year return flood) were used to assess the future flood risk for the Upper, Middle and Lower Niger as well as the Benue. The modeling results generally show increases of flood magnitudes when comparing a scenario period in the near future (2021-2050) with a base period (1976-2005). Land use effects are more uncertain, but trends and relative changes for the different catchments of the NRB seem robust. The dry areas of the Sahelian and Sudanian regions of the basin show a particularly high sensitivity to climatic and land use changes, with an alarming increase of flood magnitudes in parts. A scenario with continuing transformation of natural vegetation into agricultural land and urbanization intensifies the flood risk in all parts of the NRB, while a "regreening" scenario can reduce flood magnitudes to some extent. Yet, land use change effects were smaller when compared to the effects of climate change. In the face of an already existing adaptation deficit to catastrophic flooding in the region, the authors argue for a mix of adaptation and mitigation efforts in order to reduce the flood risk in the NRB. (C) 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Omkring hälften av Sveriges elproduktion utgörs idag av vattenkraft vilken produceras i omkring 2000 kraftverk. Den största avrinningen av vatten från land sker under våren och vattnet lagras i magasin för elproduktion under vintern. Denna förändring av den naturliga avrinningen har stora effekter på de akvatiska ekosystemen och vara ett av de största miljöproblemen för svenska vattendrag och sjöar.Det saknas idag en vägledning för statusklassificering av hydromorfologiska parametrar i kustvatten enligt Vattendirektivet. SMHI fick i uppdrag av Vattenmyndigheterna att ta fram ett förslag till klassgränser och klassning för parameter 9.5 Sötvatteninflöde och vattenutbyte i kustvatten och vatten i övergångszon enligt Havs- och vattenmyndighetens föreskrifter HVMFS 2013:19. Den hydrologiska modellen S-HYPE och den oceanografiska Kustzonsmodellen användes för att studera de skillnader i färskvattentillförsel samt färskvatteninnehåll, salinitet och vattenålder i ytan som orsakas av reglering av vattenflödet på land.Baserat på resultaten har regleringen av vattenflödet på land överlag lett till en ökning av färskvatteninnehållet med 2 % längs Norrlandskusten och en motsvarande minskning av färskvatteninnehållet på västkusten. Typiskt leder regleringen av vatten på land till en lägre färskvattentillförsel till kusten under våren och sommaren och en högre färskvattentillförsel till kusten på hösten och vintern jämfört med ett scenario med en naturlig landavrinning.Den naturliga bakgrundsvariationen, enligt definitionen ± 2 MAD (Median Absolute Deviation), och den Maximala Absoluta Avvikelsen, MAA, användes för att konstruera 5 statusklasser. Denna metod gav upphov till att 98 % av kustvattenförekomsterna fick en Hög eller God status för parametrarna färskvattentillförsel och salinitet, 87 % av kustvattenförekomsterna fick en Hög eller God status för färskvatteninnehåll och 83 % av kustvattenförekomsterna fick en Hög eller God status för vattenålder.

This is the third year joint status report for the North Sea, Skagerrak, Kattegat and the Baltic Sea area (Fig. 1) carried out by SMHI, IMR, DHI and FIMR as a part of the project BANSAI, supported by the Nordic Council of Ministers’ Sea and Air Group. The aim of the demonstration project is to integrate marine observations and eutrophication model simulations in an annual eutrophication assessment of the Baltic and the North seas. The present report is mainly based on model estimates of some of the indicators suggested by the OSPAR Common Procedure (c.f. Appendix) for the identification of the eutrophication status of the maritime area (OSPAR, 2005). This report serve as a basis for the on-going discussions about the ecological quality indicators included in the assessment, and the way to merge results from different models and observations for the assessment.Estimations of river discharges and model results are used to describe the degree of nutrient enrichment (Category I) defined by the riverine loadings of nitrogen and phosphorus, and winter surface concentrations and ratios of DIN and DIP. The direct effects of nutrient enrichment during the growing season (Category II) are described in terms of the mean and maximum chlorophyll-a concentrations and model estimations of primary production. The ratio between diatoms and flagellates is used as an indicator of region specific phytoplankton indicator species (Category II). The indirect effects of nutrient enrichment (Category III) are discussed in terms of oxygen depletion in bottom waters. Estimations of region specific background concentrations and threshold values are gathered from the literature (Helcom, 2006; OSPAR, 2005) and used for the model assessment. The four model systems used for the joint assessment (Fig. 2) cover different parts of the North Sea, Skagerrak, Kattegat and the Baltic Sea area. Detailed descriptions of the models may be found on the web-sites presented below the figure.In section 2 the key messages from this assessment will be presented. In section 3, each country gives a brief observations overview for 2006 and some references to other sources and reports that might be useful for the readers. The methods of the assessment are described in section 4. Statistical characteristics of model results and in-situ data are presented in section 5 and the model assessment of eutrophication status is done in section 6. Conclusions and comments to the assessment are presented in section 7.

A fully coupled high-resolution 3-dimensional biogeochemical-physical ocean model including an empirical wave model was used to investigate the long-term average (1970-2007) distributions and transports of resuspended matter and other types of suspended organic matter in the Baltic Sea. Modelled bottom types were compared to observations and the results showed that the model successfully managed to capture the horizontal, as well as the vertical, distribution of the different bottom types: accumulation, transport and erosion bottoms. The model also captured well the nutrient element contents in the sediments. On average the largest contribution of resuspended organic carbon to the transport of total organic carbon is found at erosion and transport bottoms. Although the relative transport of resuspended organic carbon at deeper accumulation bottoms in general is low (< 10% of total), the central parts of the sub-basins act on average as sinks that import organic matter while the more shallow areas and the coastal regions acts as sources of organic carbon in the water column. This indicates that the particulate organic matter produced in erosion and transport areas might be kept in suspension long enough to be transported and settle in less energetic areas, i.e. on accumulation bottoms. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The new approach to model the oxygen dependent phosphate release by implementing formulations of the oxygen penetration depths (OPD) and mineral bound inorganic phosphorus pools to the Swedish Coastal and Ocean Biogeochemical model (SCOBI) is described. The phosphorus dynamics and the oxygen concentrations in the Baltic proper sediment are studied during the period 1980-2008 using SCOBI coupled to the 3D-Rossby Centre Ocean model. Model data are compared to observations from monitoring stations and experiments. The impact from oxygen consumption on the determination of the OPD is found to be largest in the coastal zones where also the largest OPD are found. In the deep water the low oxygen concentrations mainly determine the OPD. Highest modelled release rate of phosphate from the sediment is about 59 x 10(3) t P year(-1) and is found on anoxic sediment at depths between 60-150 m, corresponding to 17% of the Baltic proper total area. The deposition of organic and inorganic phosphorus on sediments with oxic bottom water is larger than the release of phosphorus, about 43 x 10(3) t P year(-1). For anoxic bottoms the release of total phosphorus during the investigated period is larger than the deposition, about 19 x 10(3) t P year(-1). In total the net Baltic proper sediment sink is about 23.7 x 10(3) t P year(-1). The estimated phosphorus sink efficiency of the entire Baltic Sea is on average about 83% during the period. (C) 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).

A method to combine observations and an ensemble of ecological models is suggested to produce a eutrophication assessment. Using threshold values and methodology from the Oslo and Paris Commissions (OSPAR) and the Helsinki Commission (HELCOM), four models are combined to assess eutrophication for the Baltic and North Seas for the year 2006. The assessment indicates that the entire southeastern part of the North Sea, the Kattegat, the Danish Straits, the Gulf of Finland, and the Gulf of Riga as well as parts of the Arkona Basin, the Bornholm Basin, and the Baltic proper may be classified as problem areas. The Bothnian Bay and parts of the Baltic proper, the Bornholm Basin, and the Arkona Basin are classified as potential problem areas. This method is a useful tool for the classification of eutrophication; however, the results depend on the threshold values, and further work is needed within both OSPAR and HELCOM to harmonize these values.

Halter av NO2, PM10 och PM2.5 har beräknats för hela Sverige för år 2019 och för två scenarier 2030 i den här studien. Beräkningar har gjorts med en ny metodik som möjliggör en nästan helt sömlös kombination av spridningsmodellering på regional och urban skala utan att dubbelräkna emissioner. Föroreningshalter har beräknats på 250x250 m2 upplösning, vilket ger ett unikt komplett och detaljerat dataset på nationell skala. Metodiken kan väl reproducera uppmätta föroreningshalter vid de flesta urbana bakgrundsstationerna i modelldomänet. Den spatiala upplösningen på 250 m fångar koncentrationsgradienter av vikt för exponeringsberäkningar. En styrka med att använda spridningsmodeller för att beräkna föroreningshalter är den direkta kopplingen till emissionsinventeringar och projektioner.

Modellerade föroreningshalter kombineras med griddad befolkningsdata för att beräkna exponering. Den befolkningsviktade årsmedelexponeringen är 5,08 μg/m3 för NO2, 9,95 μg/m3 för PM10 och 5,21 μg/m3 för PM2.5 år 2019. En stor minskning, med cirka 2 μg/m3till 2030, beräknas för exponering av NO2. Exponeringen för PM10 och PM2.5 minskar också till 2030, men inte lika drastiskt, med ungefär 0,2 μg/m3.

En generell slutsats är att exponeringen är högre i åldersspannet 21-50 år. En förklaring är dessa åldersgrupper oftare bor i urbana områden, med mer utsläpp och högre föroreningshalter.

Noll procent av befolkningen exponeras för halter över den årliga miljökvalitetsnormen för NO2, PM10 och PM2.5, varken år 2019 eller 2030. Det ska dock noteras att modellresultaten representerar årsmedelvärden av urbana bakgrundskoncentrationer, inte lokala hotspots.

De modellbaserade beräkningarna av exponeringen för PM2.5 och lokalt genererad NO2 har använts i en nationell hälsokonsekvensberäkning. Hälsokonsekvensberäkningen liknar en nyligen publicerad beräkning avseende 2019, av förtida dödsfall och uppkomst av främst kroniska sjukdomar. Våra resultat avviker i olika riktning från resultaten i liknande beräkningar. En avgörande och komplicerad anledning till skillnader i de beräknade hälsokonsekvenserna är vilka exponerings-responssamband för specifika föroreningar som man baserar sina beräkningar på, riskkurvans form och om det finns någon säker nivå under vilken sambandet upphör. I denna studie har vi valt att luta oss mot den vetenskapliga evidens som ges av högkvalitativa epidemiologiska studier för att sambanden mellan partikelhalt och dödlighet är supra-linjära med den brantaste riskökningen vid de lägsta halterna, att effekterna är starkare nära källan samt att det inte finns stöd för någon tröskelnivå under vilken halten saknar betydelse. När vi räknar ihop antal förtida dödsfall per år som den regionala bakgrundshalten av PM2.5 beräknas orsaka med de dödsfall som beräknas uppkomma till följd av partikelutsläpp på hemorten så blir summan 4 264 förtida dödsfall relaterade till föroreningssituationen 2019. För samma exponeringssituation uppskattar vi att de lokalt genererade bidragettill NO2-halten leder till ytterligare 428 förtida dödsfall per år.

2030 beräknas befolkningsexponeringen för PM2.5 från den regionala bakgrunden ha minskat med omkring 2 % och från urbana källor med 22 % jämfört med 2019, vilket indikerar hur mycket antalet förtida dödsfall skulle reduceras om allt övrigt är oförändrat.

The recent advances in GIS technology as well as data availability open up new possibilities concerning urban storm runoff modeling. In this paper, a vector-based distributed storm event runoff model - the Tokyo Storm Runoff (TSR) model - is developed and tested for urban runoff analysis using two historical storm events. The set-up of this model is based on urban landscape GIS delineation that faithfully describes the complicated urban land use features in detail. The flow between single spatial elements is based on established hydraulic and hydrological models with equations that describe all aspects of storm runoff generation in an urban environment. The model was set up and evaluated for the small urban lower Ekota catchment in Tokyo Metropolis, Japan. No calibration or tuning was performed, but the general model formulation was used with standard parameter values obtained from the literature. The runoff response to two storm events were simulated; one minor event resulting only in a small-scale flood wave and one major event which inundated parts of the catchment. For both events, the simulated water levels closely reproduced the observed ones. For the major event, also the reported inundation area was well described by the model. It was also demonstrated how the model can be used to evaluate the flow conditions in specific components of the urban hydrological system, which facilitates e.g. evaluation of flood-preventive measures. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Ett forskningsprojekt finansierat av SNV:s forskningsnämnd startade 1973 i norra Ålands hav. Dess syfte var att beräkna vatten-, värme ochmaterialtransporter mellan Bottniska Viken och Östersjön. Mätningar har utförts huvudsakligen i tröskelområdet i norra Ålands hav på linjen Understen-Märket  Samtidiga mätningar i Skärgårdshavet öster om Åland har endast utförts under 1977. Resultaten visar hur stort utbytet är mellan bassängerna och var det äger rum.

Fem årliga delrapporter speglar de löpande resultaten. Den nu föreliggandeslutrapporten innehåller en övergripande sammanställning.

För att kartlägga vattenutbytet mellan Bottniska viken och Östersjön behöver man veta dels hur stora mängder vatten som förs till och från respektive bassäng, dels vilken sorts vatten som transporteras. Härvid är t ex vattnets salthalt, näringsinnehåll och föroreningsgrad intressant. Erforderliga data erhålls genom att mäta med både horisontell och vertikal upplösning tvärs de kanaler som binder samman de båda bassängerna. Nästa steg är att ta fram en budget för hur stora mängder av intressanta ämnen som förs in eller ut. Härigenom speglas hur väl ventilerad Bottniska viken är, dvs i vilken utsträckning de föroreningar som tillförs Bottniska viken stannar där.

Inom detta projekt har en kartläggning utförts över vattenutbytets struktur och storlek i Ålands hav och i begränsad omfattning även i Skärgårdshavet. Denna kan ligga till grund för ytterligare beräkningar av transporter av olika ämnen. En god kännedom har erhållits om strömförhållandena samt om hur de olika delarna av tröskelområdet fungerar ur utbytessynpunkt. Kunskaperna om detta var tidigare mycket begränsade.

Materialet rymmer naturligtvis stora möjligheter till ytterligare studier. Ett nästa steg som ter sig angeläget är att fortsätta arbetet på en dynamisk modell för Ålands hav, samt att koppla samman vattenutbytet med de meteorologiska förhållandena.

Sommartid finns den största temperaturförändringen mellan 10 och 40 m djup. Ett svagt salthaltssprångskikt som bildas under denna period ligger inom samma djupintervall. Övriga årstider ökar salthalten ganska jämnt med djupet. Under sommarperioden är ytskiktet varmare, och oftast även sötare, i den västra delen av tröskelområdet.

The QUASIMEME Project (1993-1996) was established to assist European laboratories to improve the data they produce in marine monitoring programmes. Through laboratory performance Studies (with six-monthly reports), workshops and expert visits the programme was fully interactive. There were five rounds of laboratory performance studies. For the nutrient section, in which about 50 laboratories took part, the reference materials distributed to the participants consisted of standard solutions of nutrients and seawater samples stabilized by autoclaving. The material included low and high concentrations typical of those encountered in coastal seawater; at least two samples with different concentrations were distributed in each round. Robust statistics were used to determine the means and standard deviations for each set of results. For inorganic nutrients, the assessment of the data for bias and precision was based mainly on a Z- and P-scoring system in which targets of +/- 6% were allocated to the high concentrations, likewise +/- 12.5% to the low concentrations. This overview discusses overall performance separately for nitrate plus nitrite, nitrite, ammonia, phosphate, total nitrogen and total phosphorus, and classifies the performance of individual laboratories in each round, while maintaining their anonymity. Performance for nitrate plus nitrite and nitrite improved steadily and these determinands are now fully under control; at the end of the programme, standard deviations (SD) for nitrate plus nitrite were 0.2 mu mol l(-1) at low concentration and 0.6 mu mol l(-1) (4%) at high concentration, and for nitrite they were 0.03 mu mol l(-1) and 0.06 mu mol l(-1) (5%) respectively. Phosphate showed a somewhat stable level of performance with SD of 0.06 mu mol l(-1) and 0.10 mu mol l(-1) (10%) at low and high concentrations respectively, but this could be improved. Ammonia proved the most difficult to determine, and in spite of a substantial improvement at the beginning of the exercise, this determinand is not under control in many laboratories. At low concentrations, ammonia shows a positive bias of 0.2 mu mol l(-1) and a SD of 0.3 mu mol l(-1), while at high concentrations SD reaches 0.5 mu mol l(-1) (20%). For total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP), the exercises show that only two thirds of the participants produced consistent data for TN, and less than half of them produced consistent data for TP. (C) 1997 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

The hydrologic community has recently focused substantial attention on ungauged or poorly gauged catchments, since hydrological prediction under these conditions is highly uncertain, but represents the majority of practical applications. Catchments in Greece are usually ungauged, due to resource constrains, whilst in gauged areas the period of record is often short for safe estimation of highly parameterised hydrological models. This paper is driven by the Prediction in Ungauged Basins initiative aiming to estimate catchment responses using readily available data, i.e. topographical, soil and land use information. The parsimonious rainfall-runoff model developed in a Geographical Information System (GIS) environment is based on the Clark's synthetic unit hydrograph technique to estimate the hydrological response. The method requires estimation of the time of concentration (based on the curve number), the storage attenuation coefficient and the time area histogram of the catchment. The models further compared with a data-based modelling approach using a Transfer Function and the simulated streamflow is analysed to investigate similarities as well as to better understand possible extensions of the resulting unit hydrograph. A case study using 10-minute observed data from the 15 km(2) Lykorema catchment, Attica, Greece, highlights the potential of the GIS-based model to predict, at least, the dynamic characteristics of the runoff response in ungauged or poorly gauged catchments.

The eutrophication status of the entire Baltic Sea is classified using a multi-metric indicator-based assessment tool. A total of 189 areas are assessed using indicators where information on reference conditions (RefCon), and acceptable deviation (AcDev) from reference condition could be combined with national monitoring data from the period 2001-2006. Most areas (176) are classified as 'affected by eutrophication' and only two open water areas and 11 coastal areas are classified as 'unaffected by eutrophication'. The classification is made by application of the recently developed HELCOM Eutrophication Assessment Tool (HEAT), which is described in this paper. The use of harmonized assessment principles and the HEAT tool allows for direct comparisons between different parts of the Baltic Sea despite variations in monitoring activities. The impaired status of 176 areas is directly related to nutrient enrichment and elevated loads from upstream catchments. Baltic Sea States have implemented nutrient management strategies since years which have reduced nutrient inputs. However, eutrophication is still a major problem for large parts of the Baltic Sea. The 2007 Baltic Sea Action Plan is projected to further reduce nutrient inputs aiming for a Baltic Sea unaffected by eutrophication by 2021.

We report the development of a methodology for assessing confidence in ecological status classifications. The method presented here can be considered as a secondary assessment, supporting the primary assessment of eutrophication or ecological status. The confidence assessment is based on scoring the quality of the indicators on which the primary assessment is made. This represents a first step towards linking status classification with information regarding their accuracy and precision. Applied to an existing data set used for assessment of eutrophication status of the Baltic Sea (including the Kattegat and Danish Straits) we demonstrate that confidence in the assessment is Good or High in 149 out of 189 areas assessed (79%). Contrary to our expectations, assessments of the open parts of the Baltic Sea have a higher confidence than assessments of coastal waters. We also find that in open waters of the Baltic Sea, some biological indicators have a higher confidence than indicators representing physical-chemical conditions. In coastal waters, phytoplankton, submerged aquatic vegetation and indicators of physical-chemical conditions have a higher confidence than indicators of the quality of benthic invertebrate communities. Our analyses also show that the perceived weaknesses of eutrophication assessments are due more to Low confidence in reference conditions and acceptable deviations, rather than in the monitoring data. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Thirteen regional climate model(RCM) simulations of June - July 1993 were compared with each other and observations. Water vapor conservation and precipitation characteristics in each RCM were examined for a 108 x 10degrees subregion of the upper Mississippi River basin, containing the region of maximum 60-day accumulated precipitation in all RCMs and station reports. All RCMs produced positive precipitation minus evapotranspiration ( P - E > 0), though most RCMs produced P - E below the observed range. RCM recycling ratios were within the range estimated from observations. No evidence of common errors of E was found. In contrast, common dry bias of P was found in the simulations. Daily cycles of terms in the water vapor conservation equation were qualitatively similar in most RCMs. Nocturnal maximums of P and C ( convergence) occurred in 9 of 13 RCMs, consistent with observations. Three of the four driest simulations failed to couple P and C overnight, producing afternoon maximum P. Further, dry simulations tended to produce a larger fraction of their 60-day accumulated precipitation from low 3-h totals. In station reports, accumulation from high ( low) 3-h totals had a nocturnal ( early morning) maximum. This time lag occurred, in part, because many mesoscale convective systems had reached peak intensity overnight and had declined in intensity by early morning. None of the RCMs contained such a time lag. It is recommended that short-period experiments be performed to examine the ability of RCMs to simulate mesoscale convective systems prior to generating long-period simulations for hydroclimatology.

Climate change is likely to have large effects on the Baltic Sea ecosystem. Simulations indicate 2-4 degrees C warming and 50-80 % decrease in ice cover by 2100. Precipitation may increase similar to 30 % in the north, causing increased land runoff of allochthonous organic matter (AOM) and organic pollutants and decreased salinity. Coupled physical-biogeochemical models indicate that, in the south, bottom-water anoxia may spread, reducing cod recruitment and increasing sediment phosphorus release, thus promoting cyanobacterial blooms. In the north, heterotrophic bacteria will be favored by AOM, while phytoplankton production may be reduced. Extra trophic levels in the food web may increase energy losses and consequently reduce fish production. Future management of the Baltic Sea must consider the effects of climate change on the ecosystem dynamics and functions, as well as the effects of anthropogenic nutrient and pollutant load. Monitoring should have a holistic approach, encompassing both autotrophic (phytoplankton) and heterotrophic (e.g., bacterial) processes.

Ett unikt långt dataset (1983-2013) för svavel- och kvävedeposition har skapats för Sverige samt Östersjön och omgivande länder. Det baseras på kvalitetsgranskade mätningar och modellfält, kombinerade genom avancerade metoder för att fånga spatiala och temporala variationer. Datasetet kan användas för att beskriva trender i deposition till olika relevanta marktyper.Återanalysen stämmer väl överens med mätningar, men vi har identifierat skillnader i torrdeposition till barrskog. Detta visar på behov av djupare studier och metodikförbättringar för bestämning av torrdeposition.Vi rekommenderar mer avancerade metoder för att beskriva spatial variation än genom medelvärdesbildning eller spatial interpolering av uppmätt deposition.Vi finner en markant minskning från 1980-talet fram till idag för både svavel- och kvävedeposition (med cirka 80 % respektive 30 %).Kritiska belastningar till både barr- och lövskog, fjällmarker och våtmarker har överskridits framförallt i sydvästra Sverige, men också i sydöstra Sverige och södra fjällen. Situationen förbättras men överskridanden sker fortfarande även över större områden.

I denna studie presenteras nutid (2010) och förändring till framtid (2020) för ett emissionsscenario baserat på PRIMES energimodell och IMO-beslut för internationell sjöfart. Utifrån dessa uppskattningar har modellberäkningar gjorts över nutid och förändring till 2020 för deposition av kväve och svavel, samt för lufthalter av sekundära inorganiska aerosoler (SIA; partiklar) och marknära ozon. Bidrag och förändring i detta bidrag till 2020 har presenterats för internationell sjöfart. Även Sveriges och övriga Europas bidrag till deposition i nutid och förändring till framtid har presenterats.Huvudresultaten i studien är:- Landbaserade utsläpp av svaveldioxid, kväveoxider, partiklar, kolmonoxid och volatila organiska ämnen förväntas minska i Europa såväl som i Sverige, medan utsläppen av ammoniak förväntas öka till 2020 i Europa.- Internationell sjöfart förväntas minska sina utsläpp av svaveldioxid på grund av IMO-beslut, men förväntad ökning i trafiken medför ökade utsläpp av NOx.- Såväl deposition som lufthalter fortsätter vara högst i södra Sverige.- Utsläppsminskningarna till 2020 medför minskat nedfall av svavel och kväve i Sverige.- Bidraget till kvävedeposition från internationell sjöfart ökar i hela landet till 2020, övriga bidrag minskar.- Luftkvaliteten i regional bakgrundsluft i Sverige förbättras för såväl marknära ozon som för SIA.- De högsta halterna av marknära ozon beräknas minska som en följd av utsläppsminskningar i Europa.

We have implemented the sectional aerosol dynamics model SALSA (Sectional Aerosol module for Large Scale Applications) in the European-scale chemistry-transport model MATCH (Multi-scale Atmospheric Transport and Chemistry). The new model is called MATCH-SALSA. It includes aerosol microphysics, with several formulations for nucleation, wet scavenging and condensation. The model reproduces observed higher particle number concentration (PNC) in central Europe and lower concentrations in remote regions. The modeled PNC size distribution peak occurs at the same or smaller particle size as the observed peak at four measurement sites spread across Europe. Total PNC is underestimated at northern and central European sites and accumulation-mode PNC is underestimated at all investigated sites. The low nucleation rate coefficient used in this study is an important reason for the underestimation. On the other hand, the model performs well for particle mass (including secondary inorganic aerosol components), while elemental and organic carbon concentrations are underestimated at many of the sites. Further development is needed, primarily for treatment of secondary organic aerosol, in terms of biogenic emissions and chemical transformation. Updating the biogenic secondary organic aerosol (SOA) scheme will likely have a large impact on modeled PM2.5 and also affect the model performance for PNC through impacts on nucleation and condensation.

This report presents a new aerosol dynamics version of a European scale Eulerian CTM, MATCH. The new model is called MATCH-SALSA, and includes aerosol microphysics and several options for nucleation, wet scavenging and condensation. The report entails model description, evaluation and sensitivity tests.The new model reproduces observed higher particle number concentration (PNC) in central Europe and lower in remote regions. The model peak PNC occurs at the same particle size as the observed peak or at smaller sizes, which indicate missing growth. Total PNC is underestimated at some sites. The model performs well for particle mass, including SIA components. EC and OC are underestimated at many of the sites.The results are sensitive to the fraction of SOx emitted as H2SO4 and the optimum choice is site dependent. The model results are highly sensitive to whether organic nucleation is included or not. The model results are sensitive to amount of organic vapors in the condensation. The model can be used in applications knowing the restrictions of what the model manages well and what needs further improvements, which is detailed in the report.

This paper presents the contribution to population exposure (PE) of regional background fine primary (PPM(2.5)) and secondary inorganic (SIA) particulate matter and its impact on mortality in Europe during 1997-2003 calculated with a chemistry transport model. Contributions to concentrations and PE due to emissions from shipping, Western (WEU), Eastern (EEU), and Northern Europe are compared. WEU contributes about 40% to both PPM(2.5) and SIA concentrations, whereas the EEU contribution to PPM(2.5) is much higher (43% of total PPM(2.5)) than to SIA (29% of total SIA). The population weighted average concentration (PWC) of PPM(2.5) is a factor of 2.3 higher than average (non-weighted) concentrations, whereas for SIA the PWC is only a factor 1.6 higher. This is due to PPM(2.5) concentrations having larger gradients and being relatively high over densely populated areas, whereas SIA is formed outside populated areas. WEU emissions contribute relatively more than EEU to PWC and mortality due to both PPM(2.5) and SIA in Europe. The number of premature deaths in Europe is estimated to 301000 per year due to PPM(2.5) exposure and 245 000 due to SIA, despite 3.3 times higher average SIA concentrations. This is due to population weighting and assumed (and uncertain) higher relative risk of mortality for PPM(2.5) components (2.8 times higher RR for PPM(2.5)). This study indicates that it might be more efficient, for the health of the European population, to decrease primary PM emissions (especially in WEU) than to decrease precursors of SIA, but more knowledge on the toxicity of different PM constituents is needed before firm conclusions can be drawn. (C) 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Projections of future surface ozone over Europe conducted utilizing chemistry transport models (CTMs) coupled to climate models differ greatly, even in sign. CTM sensitivity studies were conducted in order to investigate the importance of changes in natural isoprene emissions and dry deposition to vegetation, both coupled to meteorology. This knowledge can be used to improve surface ozone projections. Our simulations suggest climate change over Europe would cause changes in surface ozone between -4.0 to +13 ppb(v) on average (April-September) and -3.5 to +25 ppb(v) on average (April-September) daily maximum from 1961 - 1990 to 2071 - 2100. The change is positive in the southwest and negative in the north. The isoprene emissions increased by a factor of about 1.8 from 1961 - 1990 to 2071 - 2100. A rescaling of isoprene emissions shows that the large increase in isoprene emission is of importance (0 - 30% of the change in surface ozone) in central, southern, and western Europe. The use of a formulation for ozone dry deposition to vegetation, dependent on meteorology, and changes in snow cover, affecting the dry deposition, are more important processes. The changes in dry deposition to vegetation (not including changes in aerodynamic resistance) explain up to 80% of the surface ozone change in Spain. Therefore it is vital to include meteorological dependence for dry deposition of ozone to vegetation in surface ozone projections. Isoprene emissions are of less importance, but they are nonnegligible and should definitely be emitted online in climate ozone projection studies.

A three-dimensional Chemistry Transport Model was used to study the meteorologically induced interannual variability and trends in deposition of sulphur and nitrogen as well as concentrations of surface ozone (O(3)), nitrogen dioxide (NO(2)) and particulate matter (PM) and its constituents over Europe during 1958-2001. The model was coupled to the meteorological reanalysis ERA40, produced at the European Centre for Medium-range Weather Forecasts. Emissions and boundary conditions of chemical compounds and PM were kept constant at present levels. The average European interannual variation, due to meteorological variability, ranges from 3% for O(3), 5% for NO(2), 9% for PM, 6-9% for dry deposition, to about 20% for wet deposition of sulphur and nitrogen. For the period 1979-2001 the trend in ozone, due to climate variability is increasing in central and southwestern Europe and decreasing in northeastern Europe, the trend in NO(2) is approximately opposite. The trend in PM is positive in eastern Europe. There are negative trends in wet deposition in southwestern and central Europe and positive trends in dry deposition overall. A bias in ERA40 precipitation could be partly responsible for the trends. The variation and trends need to be considered when interpreting measurements and designing measurement campaigns.

Hemispheric transport of air pollutants can have a significant impact on regional air quality, as well as on the effect of air pollutants on regional climate. An accurate representation of hemispheric transport in regional chemical transport models (CTMs) depends on the specification of the lateral boundary conditions (LBCs). This study focuses on the methodology for evaluating LBCs of two moderately long-lived trace gases, carbon monoxide (CO) and ozone (O-3), for the European model domain and over a 7-year period, 2006-2012. The method is based on combining the use of satellite observations at the lateral boundary with the use of both satellite and in situ ground observations within the model domain. The LBCs are generated by the global European Monitoring and Evaluation Programme Meteorological Synthesizing Centre - West (EMEP MSC-W) model; they are evaluated at the lateral boundaries by comparison with satellite observations of the Terra-MOPITT (Measurements Of Pollution In The Troposphere) sensor (CO) and the Aura-OMI (Ozone Monitoring Instrument) sensor (O-3). The LBCs from the global model lie well within the satellite uncertainties for both CO and O-3. The biases increase below 700 hPa for both species. However, the satellite retrievals below this height are strongly influenced by the a priori data; hence, they are less reliable than at, e.g. 500 hPa. CO is, on average, underestimated by the global model, while O-3 tends to be overestimated during winter, and underestimated during summer. A regional CTM is run with (a) the validated monthly climatological LBCs from the global model; (b) dynamical LBCs from the global model; and (c) constant LBCs based on in situ ground observations near the domain boundary. The results are validated against independent satellite retrievals from the Aqua-AIRS (Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder) sensor at 500 hPa, and against in situ ground observations from the Global Atmospheric Watch (GAW) network. It is found that (i) the use of LBCs from the global model gives reliable in-domain results for O-3 and CO at 500 hPa. Taking AIRS retrievals as a reference, the use of these LBCs substantially improves spatial pattern correlations in the free troposphere as compared to results obtained with fixed LBCs based on ground observations. Also, the magnitude of the bias is reduced by the new LBCs for both trace gases. This demonstrates that the validation methodology based on using satellite observations at the domain boundary is sufficiently robust in the free troposphere. (ii) The impact of the LBCs on ground concentrations is significant only at locations in close proximity to the domain boundary. As the satellite data near the ground mainly reflect the a priori estimate used in the retrieval procedure, they are of little use for evaluating the effect of LBCs on ground concentrations. Rather, the evaluation of ground-level concentrations needs to rely on in situ ground observations. (iii) The improvements of dynamic over climatological LBCs become most apparent when using accumulated ozone over threshold 40 ppb (AOT40) as a metric. Also, when focusing on ground observations taken near the inflow boundary of the model domain, one finds that the use of dynamical LBCs yields a more accurate representation of the seasonal variation, as well as of the variability of the trace gas concentrations on shorter timescales.